For Puso.
Annotated Bibliography: The Green Heart of the Visayas
A Historiographical and Anthropological Analysis of Pusô and Palm Leaf Art
This bibliography synthesizes the primary and secondary sources used to reconstruct the history of pusô (hanging rice). The sources are categorized thematically to highlight the four pillars of the research: linguistic history, comparative anthropology, gastronomic science, and contemporary heritage.
I. Primary Historiography & Linguistics
These sources provide the foundational data for reconstructing the pre-colonial “vocabulary of shapes” and the social hierarchy embedded in the language of weaving.
[1] Nocheseda, E. (2011). The Art of Pusô: Palm Leaf Art in the Visayas in Vocabularios of the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries. Philippine Studies.
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Significance: This is the cornerstone text for the entire historical analysis. Nocheseda’s work serves as the “archaeological site” for the study, excavating terms from Spanish missionary dictionaries (Sánchez, Méntrida, Alcina) to reveal a lost taxonomy of fourteen distinct pusô types.
Key Insight: It provides the critical link between form and social function, identifying specific shapes like the cumol sin datu (Datu’s Fist) which imply that rice consumption was stratified and used to demarcate power dynamics. It further categorizes the pusô not just as food, but as a visual language reflecting the animist worldview.
[2] Alcina, F. I. (1668). Historia de las islas e indios de Bisayas. (Muñoz text).
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Significance: Cited as the primary ethnographic baseline for Visayan ritual life. Alcina’s chronicle moves beyond mere definition to describe the application of palm art in paganitu (spirit rituals).
Key Insight: This source serves as the evidence for the “metamorphosis of meaning” from ritual to utility. It documents the pagbutas (separation) ritual, providing the specific context where the cutting of woven ties symbolized the severance of the living from the dead. It establishes the pusô as a “currency of spiritual negotiation” rather than just a side dish.
[3] Blust, R. & Trussel, S. (2010). Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: Temu/Tamu.
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Significance: Provides the linguistic evidence for the divergence between Visayan and Southern Philippine/Malay cultural values.
Key Insight: By tracing the etymology of tamu (used in Sulu/Tausug contexts) to the Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *temu (to meet/guest), this source contrasts the “social obligation” aspect of the southern pouch against the Visayan pusô (heart/anatomy). This linguistic data supports the thesis that Visayan weaving focuses on “vitality” while Southern weaving focuses on “hospitality.”
[4] Wiktionary. Tamu.
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Significance: Serves as a supplementary etymological verification for the Southern Philippine cognates of the rice pouch.
Key Insight: Confirms the linguistic bridge between the Tausug tamu and the broader Malay world, reinforcing the “Coconut Civilization” theory of shared maritime heritage.
II. The “Coconut Civilization”: Comparative Anthropology
These sources place the Visayan tradition within the wider context of Southeast Asia, distinguishing it from its neighbors.
[5] Rianti, A., et al. (2018). Ketupat as traditional food of Indonesian culture.
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Significance: These sources allow for a comparative technical analysis between the Visayan pusô and the Indonesian ketupat.
Key Insight: They highlight the “Technical Divergence” in weaving styles. Specifically, they clarify that while ketupat often removes the midrib to create a flexible ribbon for geometric weaving, Visayan pusô often retains the midrib (tukog) for structural integrity. This distinction frames the ketupat as a “woven textile shell” versus the pusô as a “semi-rigid basket.”
[6] Viray, B. Tubong/Putong in Marinduque as a Ritual-Dance.
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Significance: Provides evidence of the persistence of palm leaf aesthetics in Catholic liturgy (syncretism).
Key Insight: Although focused on the tubong (crowning) ritual rather than rice pouches, this source illustrates the “shared material language” of the region. It supports the argument that woven palm elements remain the primary medium for articulating the sacred, bridging the gap between the babaylan’s offering and the modern Catholic Semana Santa.
[7] Wikipedia. Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia.
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Significance: Contextualizes the spread of the Cocos nucifera (coconut) and Nypa fruticans (nipa) as foundational crops for the Austronesian expansion.
Key Insight: Establishes the ecological boundaries of the “Coconut Belt,” explaining why the technology of woven rice pouches is distributed almost perfectly alongside the range of these specific palms.
[8] River Teeth Journal. Ketupat.
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Significance: A literary and cultural reflection on the ketupat.
Key Insight: Offers a narrative counterpoint to the technical descriptions, highlighting the emotional and mnemonic weight of the rice pouch in Malay culture, which parallels the “heart” metaphor in Visayan culture.
III. Molecular Gastronomy & Food Preservation
These sources provide the technical justification for the pusô’s survival as a preservation technology, analyzing the interaction between the leaf matrix and the starch.
[9] Various Authors. Studies on Phytochemical Analysis and Antimicrobial Properties.
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Coconut Leaf: Antimicrobial Feature of Traditional Coconut Leaf-Based Packaging
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Nipa Leaf: Antibacterial activity of Nypa fruticans
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General: Antimicrobial Activity against Foodborne Pathogens
Significance: These technical papers collectively provide the “hard science” behind the report’s claims regarding food preservation, moving the discussion from folklore to chemistry.
Key Insight (The “Tupperware” Effect): These sources identify specific phenolic compounds (tannins and flavonoids) in young coconut leaves (lukay) and nipa leaves that inhibit pathogens like E. coli and Bacillus subtilis. This validates the historical use of pusô by travelers and warriors as an aseptic packaging technology.
[10] Research on Flavor and Volatiles.
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Rice Wine & Flavor: Research Progress on Flavor and Quality
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Aroma Compounds: Comparison of Aroma Compounds
Significance: Used to explain the specific flavor profile of leaf-wrapped carbohydrates.
Key Insight (Lipid Transfer): The research on volatile organic compounds (VOCs) explains the “nutty” or “grassy” flavor of hanging rice. The sources detail how high-heat boiling releases lactones (-decalactone) from the leaf wax, which are then absorbed by the rice lipids, creating a flavor profile distinct from pot-cooked rice.
[11] Everant Journals. Tannin Extraction in Coconut Shell Powder.
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Significance: Discusses the chemical potency of coconut byproducts.
Key Insight: While focused on the shell, this supports the broader chemical analysis of the coconut palm as a source of tannins, which contribute to the slight astringency and preservation qualities of the pusô.
IV. Living Heritage & Contemporary Economics
Sources that document the current status of the art form, its economic role, and its survival in modern festivals.
[12] Israel, R. (2021). The culture and economic attributes of puso street food industry.
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Significance: A contemporary sociological look at the pusô economy in Cebu.
Key Insight: This source anchors the historical narrative in the present reality. It informs the discussion on the pusô’s transition from a ritual object to a “democratized” street food for common workers. It underscores the economic resilience of the manlalah (weavers) despite modernizing pressures and the competition from plastic packaging.
[13] Cebuano Studies Center. Lukay art in Cebu: A heritage of living traditions.
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Significance: A key ethnographic record of the survival of specific forms like the minanok (chicken) in upland Cebu (Taptap).
Key Insight: This text documents the syncretic use of pusô on family altars (ofrendas) alongside Catholic icons. It provides the evidence that while the diwata are no longer explicitly named, the “method of access” via the woven leaf remains identical.
[14] Philstar. Puso: More than hanging rice.
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Significance: A popular press article that captures the local sentiment and cultural pride regarding the pusô.
Key Insight: Highlights the “invisible” nature of the craft—ubiquitous yet often overlooked—and argues for its recognition as significant cultural heritage.
[15] Inquirer. Lucban yields heritage surprises.
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Significance: Links the Visayan tradition to the broader Philippine festival context (Pahiyas).
Key Insight: Demonstrates the pan-Philippine connection between agrarian festivals and weaving, reinforcing the thesis that the “woven palm” is the universal symbol of harvest and thanksgiving in the Catholic-Agrarian consciousness of the archipelago.
[16] Eat Your World. Puso in Cebu.
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Significance: A culinary travel guide that contextualizes pusô for the modern gastronomic tourist.
Key Insight: Describes the sensory experience of the pusô (texture, pairing with lechon), grounding the abstract history in the tangible experience of eating.